The Lenapes | Crows | Classroom Activities | Credits

A Study Guide for Wild Swan Theater's Production of: Rainbow Crow "If a man had wings and bore black feathers, few of them would be clever enough to be crows." --Henry Ward Beecher THE LENAPES The following information is taken from The Lenapes by Robert S. Grumet. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989.) The Lenape people were once sovereign over a huge area -- all along the Middle Atlantic coast from New York Bay to Delaware Bay, between the Hudson and Delaware river valleys. They called their homeland "Lenapehoking" or "Land of the Lenapes." In their language their name most properly means "ordinary people" or "common people." They are also sometimes known as "Lenni Lenape" or "We, the people." The Lenape people have traditionally thought of themselves as individual members of a single ethnic group sharing a common sense of identity and heritage. Traditional social and political life has always been organized around a complex but flexible network of closely related independent communities, rather than a single political group. They have been characterized as fiercely independent, putting the needs of the individual before the requirements of custom and law. A Dutch observer in 1655 wrote of them that, "They are all free by nature and will not bear any domineering or lording over them" (p. 13). William Penn wrote of them "...in Liberality they excel, nothing is too good for their friend" (p. 26). This generosity of spirit is as characteristic as their strong commitment to the individual. Balancing respect for individuality requires great social and political flexibility. The qualities of tolerance, respect and flexibility created a generally harmonious society relatively free of crime and discord. An individuals' sense of identity came from their family membership. Life revolved first around the family, with families organized into clans. Clans served as links among relatives living in different communities. A clan is here defined as "groups of related families that trace their origins to a common ancestor." Lenapes were a matrilineal tribe, meaning birthrights were passed through the mothers. The matrilineages held all rights to the household and clan lands. Women owned the lands and lodges in trust for their clan. Lenapes also practiced matrilocality; a newly married husband was required to move in with his wife's family, rather than the new wife relocating to her husband's household, as is often the custom in other patriarchal cultures. Lenape Language The Lenape language is part of the Algonquin linguistic family. Described by one early European chronicler as "sweet and full of meaning." William Penn wrote that "their language is lofty, yet narrow...in Signification full; one word serveth in the place of three" (p. 25). Scholars believe that there may have been 4 dialects used. Two of them -- Munsee and Unami -- are still spoken by a few elders. Munsee means "People from Minisink" or "the stony country." Munsee was originally spoken by those who lived in the uplands of the lower Hudson and upper Delaware rivers. Unami, the dialect of the "Down river people" was originally spoken by the Lenapes of the flat plains -- southern New Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania, and northern Delaware. Other names the Lenape were known by: Eastern Algonquin-speaking people often referred to them as "Grandfathers." The western Algonquins as "Woapanachke" or "Easterners." French Canadians called them "Loups" or "Wolves." Many of the Iroquois referred to them as "Akotshakane" or "Stutterers" because that is what the Lenape language sounded like to them. The Dutch, Swedish and English colonists in the 1600's referred to them as "River Indians." One of the rivers the Lenape lived on was named the Delaware after Thomas West, Baron de la Warr, who was the first governor of the Virginia colony; the name "Delaware" later applied to all Native Americans living along that river's banks. Daily Life Lenape life followed the seasons. Spring brought coastal Lenapes together into large camps near waterfalls and rapids. Here they would spear and net fish, and trap animals. Those living farther inland gathered in smaller camps and gathered berries and hunted bear, deer, etc. From spring to summer many moved to small communities on rich soil where they planted crops such as corn, beans, squash and tobacco. Others stayed at the shore where they would gather fish and shellfish, and make beads. They also made tools, weapons, clothes, and sacred objects. In the summer they tended crops, gathered wild foods, hunted and fished. They also traded with other clans and tribes, and went on raids, sometimes as far as what is now the Carolinas and Mississippi. In the autumn they would harvest and dry their crops. They would also go on communal hunting trips (men and women), where they would surround a huge area of a forest with armed hunters, and then set fire to it. The fire would drive the animals right into the waiting hunters' spears. Up to several thousand acres of woodland might be burned during these hunts. In the winter, people returned to their longhouses or wigwams. They would gather in council houses or around cooking fires, telling stories, singing of their visions and adventures, and dancing in thanksgiving. At times, small groups of hunters would move to remote camps to hunt and trap. Most people, however, stayed home for the winter: working, playing and praying together. Spiritual Life The Lenapes' creation story begins with Kishelemukong, the Creator. Many Lenapes believed their history began when Kishelemukong brought a giant turtle up from the depths of a great ocean. This turtle grew and grew until it became a huge island, now known as North America. They believed that the first men and women sprouted from a tree which grew on the turtle's back. After the men and women sprouted, Kishelemukong created the heavens, the sun, the moon, all animals and plants and the "four directions that governed the seasons" (p. 14). North, west, and east were all known as grandfathers; the fourth, blowing the warm spring winds from the south, was known as "our grandmother where it is warm" (p. 14). Another story attributes the changes of season to gambling among the grandparents -- spring would come when South Grandmother defeated North Grandfather, for example. One interesting point is that, because of the Grandparent's gambling games, the exact time of each change was a matter of chance. Lenapes believed that all things were alive, animated by spirits called "manetuwak." Manetuwak and all other beings were created by Kishelemukong, who "creates us by his thoughts" (p. 24). The majority of Lenapes didn't believe that Kishelemukong was directly involved in daily life; therefore men and women looked for guidance and power from all manetuwak through dreams, visions, and prayer. During sacred ceremonies, dancers called "mesinghholikan" wore masks and dressed as game spirits known as "mesingw" and as other powerful supernatural beings. During these ceremonies the Lenapes called forth supernatural forces or gave thanks for their blessings. All major life transitions were marked by appropriate prayers, rituals and ceremonies. Dances were held to honor the first fruits of spring, the green corn of summer, and the fall harvest. Special prayers welcomed newborn babies into the world, gave blessings to newlyweds, and sent the dead on their journey into the next world. Meteinuwak (doctors or medicine people), who had unusually powerful spiritual abilities, were in charge of these and other ceremonies, and oversaw the spiritual needs of their people. Those who were visited by guardian spirits, had recovered from a severe illness, or desired to give thanks for specific blessings from healing spirits repaid their spiritual leaders by becoming doctors and healers themselves, using their powers to cast spells, or looking into the future, thus influencing the course of events. Religious leaders were highly respected, and had a lot of influence throughout the history of the Lenapes.   CROWS The following information is taken from Wonders of Crows by Wyatt Blassingame (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1979), and Listen to the Crows by Laurence Pringle (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976). Crows in Language and Literature Crows are found in almost every part of the world, except for New Zealand. There is a common saying, "if a person knows only 3 birds in all the world, one of these will be a crow" (Blassingame, p. 3). In fact, crows are so popular that they've added words to our language: the "crow's nest" is a lookout at the top of a ship's mast (crows build their own nests very high); to "crow over" means to brag very loudly, inspired by the harsh voice of the crow; to "eat crow" means to take back what one has said. Crows are very popular in literature and myth. In Roman mythology, crows, or ravens, were once as white as snow. However, when one unfortunate crow brought some particularly bad news to the god Apollo, the god "Black'd the raven o'er, and bid him prate in his white plumes no more" (Blassingame, p. 14). In Norse mythology, the raven belonged to Odin, the god of war. The raven soared over the battlefield and fed on the bodies of the dead. (Crows are omnivorous, and will eat everything.) Lady Macbeth states: ...The raven himself is hoarse That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. (MacBeth, Act 1, sc. iv) Then, of course, there is Edgar Allen Poe's famous poem, "The Raven", which features a midnight visitor, whose only utterance is the word "nevermore." Basic Facts About Crows Most ornithologists divide the North American crow into three species: the common crow, corvus btachyrhynchos; the northwestern crow, corvus caurinus, and the fish crow, or corvus ossifragus. Some further divide the common crow into four subspecies: the eastern, southern, Florida, and western crow. The main difference in these subspecies is a slight variation in size with the fully grown eastern crow, the largest of the four, measuring about 17" from the tip of its bill to the tip of the tail and the smallest of the group, the northwestern crow, averaging about 14 1/2" from tip to tail. Crows are very intelligent. They have been taught to count, to recognize and match written figures and shapes, and to speak a few human words. They have also been heard mimicking crowing roosters, yelping puppies, barking dogs and meowing cats (Pringle, p. 8). Crows are very capable birds. They have many different types of cawing, which is how they communicate with one another. For example, they often feed in flocks, with one or two crows posted as lookouts. If a lookout sees a predator, he or she signals the others with a specific caw meaning something like "danger." This enables the whole flock to escape unharmed. They are believed to give themselves a "name" or a specific caw by which other crows can recognize it. This allows them to keep in touch with the entire flock while hunting, for example. The flock won't necessarily be able to see each other, but they can hear the caws. In this manner, each crow can tell the others about the food or predators it finds. Crows are also very mischievous. They've been known to steal clothespins, apparently just for the joy of watching the clothes fall to the ground! (Pringle, p. 27) Mating Some crows mate for life. Jackdaws, one species of crow, also get engaged! Although they are not able to mate until their second year, they pair off at the end of their first, and remain with their mate for life. Both males and females build nests. Crows typically lay between four and six eggs, which are incubated by both parents. The parents usually take turns sitting on the nest, but have been seen sitting on the nest together. The eggs usually take between eighteen and twenty days to hatch; baby crows can open their eyes five days later. By four weeks, the new crow has most of its feathers. One interesting fact is that even after the young have left the nest, the family stays together for awhile. As was mentioned earlier, crows are omnivorous. They often build their nests near duck and geese nesting places, and will rob those nests, eating the eggs or the young birds. Baby crows themselves are so noisy in their constant demands for food that they are often eaten too, by hawks, raccoons, cats or snakes. Enemies Crows have few enemies. Their biggest enemy, aside from man, is the great horned owl. The owl's advantages are its size, its ability to see at night, and the almost total silence with which they fly. The crow's biggest advantages are its intelligence, its ability to communicate with other crows, and to work with one another. Crows will recognize an enemy, call to every crow within hearing, and rush in, literally mobbing it. Farmers are another enemy. Crows can do thousands of dollars' worth of damage to an orchard in just a few hours. They love corn and will pull up young plants, eat the seed from the bottom, and throw the rest away. They have also been known to destroy entire fields of watermelon by poking holes in each one to get sips of watermelon juice. Crows can also be a benefit, of course, by eating harmful insects and grub worms. Crows are very cautious. They fly slow and steady, rather than swiftly or in a darting manner. This would seem to make them easy to hunt -- except that they are so smart it is virtually impossible to sneak up on them!   CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES Create a model Lenape village Locate as many other creation stories as you can find. See if there are any others which feature turtles or humans sprouting from trees. Compare and contrast similar ideas found in the stories. Create a ritual dance to celebrate a particular season or event. Create masks to go with your dance. Write a journal entry as an early explorer or settler, describing what you know about the "River people." Write another story explaining how fire first came to earth. Write a story or myth about the first winter, or the first time animals or people noticed snow. Tell a story about the seasons. Let someone else retell it and see how it changes. Tell a story using only instruments. Look for other versions of Rainbow Crow; compare and contrast them. Create personal "caws." Create a "caw" language and have a conversation. Keep a journal about the crows in your neighborhood -- what do you notice about them? Try and sneak up on a crow. CREDITS The production of Rainbow Crow is based on a book of the same name, retold by Nancy Van Laan. Ms. Van Laan heard the story at a corn-planting ceremony near her home in Bucks County, Pennsylvania. That afternoon, Bill "Whippoorwill" Thompson, a Lenape Elder and the official teller of the Rainbow Crow tale, told many stories of his people, including the legend of Rainbow Crow. The story has been handed down in his family, from father to son, for many generations. Ms. Van Laan was captivated by the story of the Crow's bravery, and very much wanted to write it down. Mr. Thompson gave permission to Ms. Van Laan to adapt the tale for publication; Wild Swan Theater has been fortunate in receiving permission to adapt it for production. Enjoy the show!