Background Literature

The Computing Skills and Concepts course (SI-101) has evolved over many years of research conducted at Carnegie Mellon University and at the University of Michigan. The following links require Adobe Acrobat Reader to view the full-text version of the published papers.

Beyond Command Knowledge:
Identifying and Teaching Strategic Knowledge
for Using Complex Computer Applications

Suresh K. Bhavnani, Frederick Reif and Bonnie E. John; Conference Proceedings on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2001, Pages 229 - 236

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Abstract:
Despite experience, many users do not make efficient use of complex computer applications. We argue that this is caused by a lack of strategic knowledge that is difficult to acquire just by knowing how to use commands. To address this problem, we present efficient and general strategies for using computer applications, and identify the components of strategic knowledge required to use them. We propose a framework for teaching strategic knowledge, and show how we implemented it in a course for freshman students. In a controlled study, we compared our approach to the traditional approach of just teaching commands. The results show that efficient and general strategies can in fact be taught to students of diverse backgrounds in a limited time without harming command knowledge. The experiment also pinpointed those strategies that can be automatically learned just from learning commands, and those that require more practice than we provided. These results are important to universities and companies that wish to foster more efficient use of complex computer applications.

The Strategic Use of Complex
Computer Applications

Bhavnani, S.K., and John, B.E.; Human-Computer Interaction in the New Millennium (John Carroll, editor); Addison Wesley, 2001; pages 97 - 124

Designs Conducive to the Use
of Efficient Strategies

Suresh K. Bhavnani; Conference Proceedings on Designing Interactive Systems: Processes, Practices, Methods, and Techniques, 2000, Pages 338 - 345

Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Abstract:
Studies on the widespread inefficient use of complex computer applications have suggested that users need to learn efficient strategies in addition to learning how to use tools. This paper argues that our growing understanding of strategic knowledge can be used to guide designers develop systems which are conducive to the use of efficient strategies. The paper first describes ten general strategies which appear to be useful across three computer application domains. Next, the paper discusses the functionalities required to execute the ten strategies, and what makes them conducive to strategy use. An analysis of six major computer applications in three domains reveals that these functionalities are not consistently offered, and how their absence directly affects the performance of complex tasks. The analysis leads to questions related to the generality of the results, the problem of featurism, and how strategy-conducive systems could facilitate the transfer of knowledge across applications. The paper concludes by briefly describing how we intend to use the strategy framework to develop analysis methods for designers and trainers.

The Strategic Use of CAD:
An Empirically Inspired, Theory-Based Course

Suresh K. Bhavnani, Bonnie E. John and Ulrich Flemming; Conference Proceedings on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1999, Pages 183 - 190

Paper Abstract:
The inefficient use of complex computer systems has been widely reported. These studies show the persistence of ineffient methods despite many years of experience and formal training. To counteract this phenomenon, we present the design of a new course, called the Strategic Use of CAD. The course aims at teaching students efficient strategies to use a computer-aided drafting system through a two-pronged approach. Learning to See teaches students to recognize opportunities by studying the nature of the task, and Learning to Do teaches students to implement the strategies. Results from a pilot experiment show that this approach had a positive effect on the strategic behavior of students who did not exhibit knowledge of strategies before the class, and had no effect on the strategic behavior of those who did. Strategic training can thus assist users in recognizing opportunities to use efficient strategies. We present the ramifications of these results on the design of training and future experiments.

Delegation and Circumvention:
Two Faces of Efficiency

Suresh K. Bhavnani and Bonnie E. John; Conference Proceedings on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1998, Pages 273 - 280

Paper Abstract:
Throughout history, inefficient methods to use devices have been replaced by more efficient ones. This shift typically occurs when users discover how to delegate work to the powers of a tool, and to circumvent its limitations. Strategies of delegation and circumvention, therefore, appear to be the core of efficient use. To show how this approach can explain the relationship between tools and strategies in complex computer systems, we describe five ways to perform a real-world drawing task with current as well as future tools. We then present five corresponding GOMS models that demonstrate the value of efficient strategies when compared to the observed behavior of a professional CAD user. We conclude by presenting a generalized framework to characterize efficient strategies and discuss its relevance to design and training.

From Sufficient to Efficient Usage:
An Analysis of Strategic Knowledge

Suresh K. Bhavnani and Bonnie E. John; Conference Proceedings on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1997, Pages 91 - 98

Paper Abstract:
Can good design guarantee the efficient use of computer tools? Can experience guarantee it? We raise these questions to explore why empirical studies of real-world usage show even experienced users under-utilizing the capabilities of computer applications. By analyzing the use of everyday devices and computer applications, as well as reviewing empirical studies, we conclude that neither good design nor experience may be able to guarantee efficient usage. Efficient use requires task decomposition strategies that exploit capabilities offered by computer applications such as the ability to aggregate objects, and to manipulate the aggregates with powerful operators. To understand the effects that strategies can have on performance, we present results from a GOMS analysis of a CAD task. Furthermore, we identify some key aggregation strategies that appear to generalize across applications. Such strategies may provide a framework to enable users to move from a sufficient to a more efficient use of computer tools.

Exploring the Unrealized Potential
of Computer-Aided Drafting

Suresh K. Bhavnani and Bonnie E. John; Conference Proceedings on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1996, Pages 332 - 339

Paper Abstract:
Despite huge investments by vendors and users, CAD productivity remains disappointing. Our analysis of real-world CAD usage shows that even after many years of experience, users tend to use suboptimal strategies to perform complex CAD tasks. Additionally, some of these strategies have a marked resemblance to manual drafting techniques. Although this phenomenon has been previously reported, this paper explores explanations for its causes and persistence. We argue that the strategic knowledge to use CAD effectively is neither defined nor explicitly taught. In the absence of a well-formed strategy, users often develop a synthetic mental model of CAD containing a mixture of manual and CAD methods. As these suboptimal strategies do not necessarily prevent users from producing clean, accurate drawings, the inefficiencies tend to remain unrecognized and users have little motivation to develop better strategies. To reverse this situation we recommend that the strategic knowledge to use CAD effectively should be made explicit and provided early in training. We use our analysis to begin the process of making this strategic knowledge explicit. We conclude by discussing the ramifications of this research in training as well as in the development of future computer aids for drawing and design.

CAD Usage in an Architectural Office:
From Observations to Active Assistance

Suresh K. Bhavnani, Ulrich Flemming, Diana E. Forsythe, James H. Garett, Doris S. Shaw and Albert Tsai; Automation in Construction Volume 5, Issue3, September 1996, Pages 243 - 255

Automation in Construction (Science Direct) Abstract:
The functionality and resources provided by CAD systems have been increasing rapidly, but productivity growth expected from their use has been difficult to achieve. Although many surveys describe this productivity puzzle, few studies have been conducted on actual CAD users to understand its causes. In an effort to arrive at such an understanding, the first author visited a federal architectural office and observed CAD users in their natural setting. This paper describes preliminary results obtained from the study, which used ethnographic techniques developed by cultural anthropologists. The study revealed that users had leveled-off in their learning and experimentation and were using the CAD system in suboptimal ways. By asking why users were not using many resources available to them to improve performance, the observer uncovered issues of communication and management that needed to be addressed. Based on this understanding, the authors provide explicit recommendations to CAD users and vendors. In addition, they hypothesize that users might benefit from a system that provides active assistance, that is, intervenes spontaneously with advice, assistance, and relevant information while the user interacts with the CAD system. They conclude with some issues revealed by the study that should be considered when developing such active assistance.

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