According to the SAE standard, vehicles of level 3 driving automation and above are equipped with automated driving features. While people are still speculating when level 5 full automation will be ready, driving features at SAE Level 3, such as the Audi Traffic Jam Pilot are expected to be introduced into the market from 2020 onward. A particular concern with Level 3 automation is the takeover transition from the automated vehicle (AV) to the driver. As the driver is not always required to monitor the environment, he or she may become increasingly decoupled from the driving task and have difficulty in taking over control at a moment’s notice. 

In response to this difficulty, human factors researchers have investigated factors affecting takeover performance such as age (Körber et al. 2016; Li et al. 2018) and types of non-driving related tasks (NDRTs) (Wan and Wu 2018; Gold et al. 2016). They have also tested the effectiveness of various designs for facilitating takeover transitions, such as the use of two-stage takeover alerts (Epple, Roche, and Brandenburg 2018) and multimodal displays (Borojeni et al. 2016; Politis, Brewster, and Pollick 2015, 2017